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Formulae (5)

GS = TAS \pm W

Ground speed is true airspeed adjusted for the headwind/tailwind component.

t = \dfrac{d}{GS}

Time en route equals distance divided by ground speed.

PNR = \dfrac{E \cdot GS_{out} \cdot GS_{back}}{GS_{out}+GS_{back}}

Farthest distance an aircraft can fly and still return with available endurance.

d = R\arccos(\sin\phi_1\sin\phi_2 + \cos\phi_1\cos\phi_2\cos\Delta\lambda)

Shortest distance between two points on the Earth for long-range navigation.

TAS \approx IAS\left(1 + \frac{h}{60000}\right)

Airspeed corrected for altitude.